Ibms Culture Transformation Ibm - 1374 Words

IBM’s Culture Transformation There is a multitude of reasons as to why an organization may change their culture. Some catalysts to cultural change could be such things as changes in the economy, external events, internal shortcomings, restructuring of leadership, or growth of technological capabilities. Since IBM was founded in 1911, it has undergone a multitude of cultural changes driven by each one of these factors. The 1990’s included a large cultural shift for this organization driven by a new CEO and new technological capabilities. Culture Prior to the Change Prior to their cultural change that took place in the early 1990’s, many would have said that IBM was on a fatal downhill slide. At this point they were beginning to become obsolete. IBM at one point was among the leaders within the world for hardware/software development and information technology services, but all divisions within the organization were run independently from one another. They were not a unified enterprise. To solidify this even further, â€Å"rather than working together as a team, divisions competed against each other both internally and in the field† (DiCarlo, L., 2002). Steps to Change On April 1, 1993 Louis V. Gerstner took over as IBM’s chairman and CEO. Gerstner was able to recognize the flaws in IBM’s model to have the company being run as several independent parts from one another. From the beginning he was able to recognize that â€Å"IBM was greater than the sum of its parts †¦ and the entireShow MoreRelatedIBM case study Essay1114 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Few companies have had such a long history of ups and downs as IBM. What were some of the keys to its recent success? Can its plan to solve some of the world’s most challenging problems succeed? Why or why not? International Business Machines, abbreviated IBM and nicknamed Big Blue, is a multinational computer technology and IT consulting corporation. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software and offers infrastructure services, hosting services, and consulting services in areasRead MoreIbm Research Paper1565 Words   |  7 Pages18 Oct 2013 The company I chose is IBM.  IBMs organizational structure is  typical  of multi-product or multi-business companies. In this article I will through three ways to analyze that company. There is company’s background, employment, issued facing the company. * Background â€Å"Since its inception, IBM has been a company that defined itself not by particular products, technologies or leaders, but by persistent values.† (IBM, 2012) [1]. Throughout IBM’s 101 years development history: ‘think’Read MoreIBM Case Study1130 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ IBM case study: An analysis of the changes that Palmisano began implementing at IBM in 2005 using the Tushman-O-Reilly Congruence Model According to the Tushman-O-Reilly Congruence Model, for an organization to successfully transform for the next generation, its four key organizational building blocks of critical tasks, people, organizational structure and culture must be aligned and in congruence (Fan 2006). This model provided the basis for IBMs radical transformation in 2005 under the helmRead MoreWho Says Elephants Can t Dance?828 Words   |  4 Pagesaccount of IBM s historic turnaround told by Louis V. Gerstner, Jr., the chairman and CEO of IBM from April 1993 until March 2002. This book touches on Gerstner’s life before joining IBM, highlighting his years in McKinsey Company, American Express and RJR Nabisco, but is primarily centered on his IBM experience particularly relating to the turnaround strategies he implemented which took IBM from less than $18 per share in 1993 to $78 per share in 2003 (Reuters, 2014). Gerstner’s tenure in IBM is boastedRead More Case Analysis Essay1282 Words   |  6 Pages IBM provides services, software, and systems to clients across throughout the world. During the transformation to a global corporate enterprise, IBM maintained its core values and principles. As a leader in the industries in which it serves, IBM entered its second century in business dedicated to its culture of fairness and corporate citizenship. IBM utilizes a consistent approach to technology and innovation, and has a positive impact on the communities in which it operates. IBM is passionateRead MoreThe Dynamic Capabilities Theory Of The Organization1327 Words   |  6 PagesThe knowledge is part of all spheres, levels, department in the company, that also has partnership with universities, institutions as well laboratories, apart from IBM’s laboratories. The Organization invest in a massive structure of learning, from Business, organizational, as examples for rules, practice and guidelines, until science for developing new technologies. In this way, as the informati on are available for all employees, this can contribute to reduce power and influence, as internally,Read MoreIbm Case Study1686 Words   |  7 PagesDISCUSSION QUESTIONS Q1. What is the primary objective of IBM’s advertising? How have the objectives of its advertising changed over the years? Obviously, in one perspective the initial primary objective of IBM’s advertising is to RECAPTURED the brand equity to increase its diminishing market share. Plunging from one of the market leader during 70’s and 80’s to almost a market looser in the 90’s, IBM’s rebranding aims at the value proposition in the mind of the consumers. DefeatedRead MoreIbm Decade of Transformation13401 Words   |  54 Pagescade of 9-805-130 REV: JULY 8, 2009 LYNDA M. APPLEGATE ROBERT AUSTIN ELIZABETH COLLINS IBMs Decade of Transformation: Turnaround to Growth This is my last annual letter to you. By the time you read this, Sam Palmisano will be our new chief executive officer, the eighth in IBM’s history. He will be responsible for shaping our strategic direction as well as leading our operations. . . . I want to use this occasion to offer my perspective on what lies ahead for our industry. To many observersRead MoreIbm s Global Talent Management Strategy1363 Words   |  6 PagesStauferland IBM’s Global Talent Management Strategy: The Vision of the Globally Integrated Enterprise Objective: Workforce Management Initiative (WMI) will transform the way IBM manages it most important asset- Human Resources. They will use Analytics and Behavioral Science to improve Organizational Performance. History of IBM: IBM was founded in 1911. It had a strong market in computing business that focused on the Main Frame Computing. IBM reached its great success when IBM PC came out inRead MoreIbm Case Study1675 Words   |  7 PagesDISCUSSION QUESTIONS Q1. What is the primary objective of IBM’s advertising? How have the objectives of its advertising changed over the years? Obviously, in one perspective the initial primary objective of IBM’s advertising is to RECAPTURED the brand equity to increase its diminishing market share. Plunging from one of the market leader during 70’s and 80’s to almost a market looser in the 90’s, IBM’s rebranding aims at the value proposition in the mind of the consumers. Defeated

Estee Lauder - 729 Words

Introduction Estee Lauder Companies, Inc is a U.S manufacturer and marketer of skin care, cosmetics, hair-care and fragrance products. The companys headquarters are in New York City. It was founded in 1946 by Estee Lauder and her husband Joseph Lauder. Her first step was to convince Madison Avenue to carry her product but she failed. Then she started her business by selling the product directly to the customers. With that success she began to target the high-class customers by selling the product exclusively through boutiques and department store. In 1948, Estee Lauder establish her first department store in New York. The next 15 years the products were selectively distributed in other stores in United States. And in 1960 the company†¦show more content†¦Moreover, the current vision statement does not provide a foundation for developing a comprehensive and clear mission statement which is pivotal to strategic management. Mission Statement We are a family company committed to working together with uncompromising ethics and integrity. We strive to always: * Provide customers with innovative cosmetic products of the highest quality. * Deliver outstanding service by treating each individual as we ourselves would like to be treated. * Create an environment that fosters personal growth and well being. * Build partnerships with our suppliers, retailers and colleagues based on fairness and trust. * Enhance our reputation of image, style and prestige. * Pursue profit, but never at the expense of quality, service or reputation. * Eliminate waste and reduce inefficiencies in order to provide maximum value to our customers. * Be responsible citizens in every community we serve. Element | Component | Comment | 1 | Customer | Yes | 2 | Product of Services | Yes | 3 | Markets | No | 4 | Technology | No | 5 | Concern for survival, growth and profitability | Yes | 6 | Philosophy | Yes | 7 | Self-Concept | Yes | 8 | Concern for public image | Yes | 9 | Concern for employees | Yes | Strategies Deliberate StrategiesShow MoreRelatedEstee Lauder9709 Words   |  39 PagesEstee Lauder Study Case Estee Lauder CASE STUDY ANALYSIS STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT (MGT 658) Prepared by: ACKNOWLEDGMENT Alhamdulillah, first of all we would like to thank ALLAH S.W.T as finally we were able to finish our assignments that have been given by lecturer to us. This task had been done with all afford by group members even though a little bit problem were happened among us while doing this assignment. Luckily all the problems can be settled down and we were able to adapt properly andRead MoreEstee Lauder3637 Words   |  15 Pagescome with a promise to uphold the finest standards of excellence. Through extensive research and stringent product evaluation, we are pleased to bring you skincare, makeup and fragrance products that are both gentle and highly effective. Founder: Estee Lauder, the founder of the $8 billion company that bears her name, started her business with four skin care products and a simple premise: that every woman can be beautiful. Principles: We are dedicated to working together with uncompromising ethicsRead MoreEstee Lauder: Integrated Marketing Communications plan4637 Words   |  19 PagesExecutive Summary The purpose of this situation analysis is to identify internal and external factors that will have an impact on Estee Lauders integrated marketing communications program (IMC). A situation analysis is necessary to determine the position Estee Lauder is currently occupying, in terms of finances, promotional strategies, product range and brand image. A thorough analysis will help identify any opportunities and potential threats that the company may come across and the effect thatRead MoreConsumer Behaviour: Estee Lauder3313 Words   |  14 Pagescompanies such as Coca Cola, Estee Lauder Companies Incorporation (Estee Lauder) and many others. Estee Lauder is a globally recognized manufacturer and marketer of prestige skin care, makeup, and fragrance and hair care products. Estee Lauder founded the Estee Lauder Company in 1946 and it’s headquarter is located in Midtown, New York. Estee Lauder comprises of popular brands such as Estee Lauder, Clinique, MAC Cosmetics and many other s. 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Their astounding attention to detail and priority to transformative products and experiences help individuals express their own sense of beauty. Estee Lauder is a company that solely focuses on high quality make up, skin scare, fragrance and haircare with a globally diverse portfolio of 25+ brands sold in 150 countries. Their desire to constantly push the boundaries of what their clientele expects isRead MoreEstee Lauder8344 Words   |  34 Pages1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 COMPANY’S BACKGROUND Estee Lauder Company was founded in 1946 by Estee Lauder and her husband Joseph Lauder. It is a manufacturer and marketer of four cosmetic product lines, which include skin care, makeup, fragrances and hair care products in the world. In U.S. prestige cosmetics category, Estee Lauder Companies has a market share of about 46 percent. In 1948, Estee Lauder established their first department store account with Saks Fifth Avenue in New York. During the nextRead MoreEstee Lauder6308 Words   |  26 PagesEstee Lauder Companies, Inc. 1.0 Overview (Chronology) Estee Lauder, the founder of what is now a major cosmetics empire, started her business with a single jar of face cream that was mixed by her uncle, a chemist. Today, based in New York City, Estee Lauder is a manufacturer and marketer of four cosmetics product lines, like skin care, makeup, fragrances, and hair care products. These products are sold in over 130 countries and territories under different brand names, such as Estee Lauder, MAC

Clausewitz in the 21st Century Free Essays

string(80) " are more fundamental than can simply be accounted by shifting characteristics\." Clausewitz lived in a time where battles were fought in columns and lines, with soldiers using muskets and solid-shot cannon; when states were the exclusive actors in war; when technological change occurred over decades, if not centuries. What relevance could his work therefore have for the strategic problems of the 21st century? Introduction Clausewitz was not a cookbook writer. He was not looking for hard and fast rules for conducting war, which he eschews. We will write a custom essay sample on Clausewitz in the 21st Century or any similar topic only for you Order Now Indeed, Clausewitzian theories elaborated at different periods of time are in close conjunction with the prevalent political, strategic, and military context, which is completely consonant with Clausewitz’s original conception of his own work: ‘Theory should be study, not doctrine [†¦] It is an analytical investigation leading to a close acquaintance with the subject; applied to experience – in our case, to military history – it leads to thorough familiarity with it. The closer it comes to that goal, the more it proceeds from the objective form of a science to a subjective form of a skill, the more effective it will prove in areas where the nature of the case admits no arbiter but talent. ’ ‘Theory is meant to educate the mind of the future commander, or, more accurately, to guide him in his self-education, not to accompany him to the battlefield. ’ If ‘the absurd difference between theory and practice’ is to be ended, then the correspondence between theory and practice implies the correspondence between the military commander and military thinker. Therefore, ‘self-education’ is important and useful to the military thinker too. He must not be bounded by a single theory of war but with the means to develop his own ideas (objective knowledge of war), fuelled by his talent (subjective capacity and application). The phenomena of war are more diverse than ever: from terrorism to inter-state war, from information war to riots in rural areas, from air strikes to intifada. Loose networks of limited wars have replaced the expectation of a nuclear apocalypse that characterized the Cold War. The differences and contradictions between the various conclusions and corresponding analyses regarding a strategic situation are but a reflection of the variety of military conflicts and the diversity of perspectives from which these conflicts are observed. These perspectives depend on time, culture, and political context. This phenomenon has been analyzed through the concept of strategic culture, that is ‘a distinctive and lasting set of beliefs, values and habits regarding the threat and use of force, which have their roots in such fundamental influences as the geographical setting, history and political culture’. States (e. g. Americans, Europeans, Chinese, Iranians, Indians etc. ) tend to have different perspectives on strategic problems, and the reason for these divergences probably goes beyond the defense of short-term interests. The extremely heterogeneous situation of the phenomena of war is analyzed from very different lenses of different strategic cultures, and hence makes states’ theories of war difficult to critique. Moreover, it is difficult to validate the doctrines that reflect these different theories by the use of examples of operational success or failure. Therefore, the need for a theory-of-theories of war remains valid. An overarching theory of war will take into account the influence of the interaction between the thinker and his object and can form the framework required to analyze the strategic debate. Clausewitz thus continues to remain relevant to analyze strategic problems of the 21st century as he had developed a theory about the theory of war. Research Approach Clausewitz recognized that Napoleon had overreached himself and the theoretical significance that a consistent, single military strategy could have different historical outcomes. In his own realization – evident in his note of 1827 – that any theory of war had to accommodate two sorts of war: war to overthrow the enemy; and war that is the basis of negotiation with him. Four fundamental contrasts are emphasized between the early and later Clausewitz because they remain central to contemporary debates about his work: (1) The primacy of military force versus the primacy of politics. 2) Existential warfare, or rather warfare related to one’s own identity, which engaged Clausewitz most strongly in his early years, as against the instrumental view of war that prevails in his later work. (3) The pursuit of military success through unlimited violence embodying ‘the principle of destruction’, versus the primacy of limited war and the limitation of violence i n war, which loomed increasingly large in Clausewitz’s later years. (4) The primacy of defense as the stronger form of war, versus the promise of decisive results that was embodied in the seizure of offensive initiative. It is not the intent or purpose of this paper to summarize Clausewitz’s works, given its scope, or to challenge the assertions of specific anti-Clausewitz writers such as Martin van Crevald, John Keegan or even Alvin and Heidi Toffler. The paper will instead highlight the seeming unbounded-ness of war (or armed conflict) and violence in the twenty-first century, and propose a strategy of containment of war and violence. This will relate later Clausewitz’s concepts of war and politics to our current reality. At the outset, I will provide an analysis of Clausewitz’s concept of the nature of war. Additionally, given the research question’s implication that Clausewitz should be marooned due to his lack of regard for ‘non-state actors’ and that his writings were in a time of slow ‘technological change’, I will also demonstrate that Clausewitz was well-aware of the influence of non-state actors and their ability to wage war; and his thoughts has continued relevance in our time of rapid technological changes. The Nature of War For Clausewitz, war was likened to a chameleon, allowing for changes to its appearance, but suggesting that its underlying nature remains unchanged. The character of war has certainly changed or morphed since his time. His critics argue that some changes can alter war’s very nature, and the nature of war today is radically different from the nature of war then, the age of Napoleon. In other words, the changes are more fundamental than can simply be accounted by shifting characteristics. You read "Clausewitz in the 21st Century" in category "Papers" The most recent English translation of the text, by Michael Howard and Peter Parat, renders its opening sentence thus: ‘War is more than a true chameleon that slightly adapts its characteristics to the given case. As a total phenomenon its dominant tendencies always make war a remarkable trinity. Clearly, a chameleon remains a chameleon whatever color it adopts for the time being. The crucial two words in the translation are ‘more than’, which imply that the circumstances of war can cause war to change more than its characteristics: War in other words is not l ike a chameleon. However, this translation did not capture the nuance of Clausewitz’s original: ‘Der Krieg ist also nicht nu rein wahres Chamaleon, weil er in jedem konkreten Fall seine Natur etwas andert, sondern er ist auch seinem Gesamterscheinungen nach, in Beziehung auf die in ihm herrschenden Tendenzen, eine wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit’. The implication here is that war may indeed be a chameleon, in that it changes its nature slightly in each individual case (its ‘character’), but not its nature in general, which is made up of the ‘trinity’ (addressed later). The translation thus reads: ‘War is not only a true chameleon, because it changes its nature slightly in each concrete case, but it also, in it is overall appearance, in relation to its inherent tendencies, a wondrous trinity’. The Primacy of Policy and the ‘Trinity’ War is an instrument of policy. ’ It ‘is simply a continuation of political intercourse, with the addition of other means’. Clausewtiz’s aphorism on the relationship between war and policy was now being dismissed not because war had no utility but because it is being waged for reasons that are not political or policy-driven. Critics argue that Clausewitz no longer have a place in the current strategic and security studies debates, where war was no longer the province of armed forces but also of non-state actors. The question was whether strategy, traditionally-defined, continues to be the best way of looking at what was, revealingly, no longer even called war, but armed conflict. Clausewitz understood a community as having its own political and social identity, even if it lacked statehood. Such an interpretation is consonant with Clausewitz’s own interest in wars before 1648, where he specifically linked the weaknesses of states to ‘exceptional manifestations in the art of war’. In his review of the history of war, he described ‘the semibarbarous Tartars, the republics of antiquity, the feudal lords and trading cities of the Middle Ages, eighteenth-century kings and the rulers and peoples of the nineteenth-century’ as ‘all conducting war in their own particular way, using different methods and pursuing different aims’. Despite this variability, Clausewitz stresses that war is all these cases remains a continuation of their policy by other means. In doing so, however, he suppresses the difference between the policies of states and the intentions of other communities which wage war. Therefore, it makes sense to supplement the primacy of policy as a general category with the affiliation of belligerents to a warring community. If the communities are states, we can speak of politics in the modern sense; if they are ethnic, religious, or other communities, the value systems and goals of those communities (their ‘cultures’) are the more important factors. Based on this, we could replace Clausewitz’s meaning of state with the notion of it being that of the intentions, aims or values of the â€Å"warring community,† thus remaining much more faithful to his understanding of what a state embodies. Otherwise, we would implicitly express a modern understanding of Clausewitz’s concept of state. Clausewitz’s concepts of war (including armed conflict) and violence continue to be relevant so long as they are motivated by interests and policy and not hate, rage, boredom, the need for personal meaning and bonding. Die Wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit (The Wondrous Trinity) Clausewitz describes the trinity as composed of: (1) Primordial violence, hatred, and enmity, which are regarded as a blind natural force; (2) The play of chance and probability, within which the creative spirit is free to roam; and 3) Its element of subordination, as an instrument of policy, which makes it subject to pure reason. Read in tandem with Clausewitz’s metaphor of war’s appearance from case to case as a chameleon, the trinity addresses the underlying forces that drive those changes. His message was that the relationship among these three elements was inherently unstable and shifting. To quote, ‘the task†¦is to keep our theory [of war] floating among these three tendencies’, and not try to set, or to count on any fixed relationship among them. Clausewitz and a New Containment The Removal of the Inhibitions on War and a New Containment The twenty-first century appeared for a time an age defined by economics and, to a great extent, peace. These expectations quickly disappeared with the massacres and genocides in Africa, return of war to Europe, the 9/11 attacks, the Iraq and Afghanistan wars with their continuing, violent consequences and the Arab Springs. A struggle against a new totalitarianism of an Islamic type appears to have started, in which war and violence is commonly perceived as having an unavoidable role, and perceived to be becoming more ‘unbounded’ than ever before. Spatially, the terrorist are potentially ever present. Temporally, there seems no end-in-sight to their attacks. We face new types of threats such as the development of atomic bombs by ‘problematic’ states like Iran and North Korea and the possession of weapons of mass destruction by terrorists. The emergence of China as a potential superpower and perhaps great powers, like India, may lead to a fresh arms dynamic, with the possibility of a nuclear dimension. Violence seems to be going out of rational control, an image that the media has not hesitated to portray. There is a grave portent of mankind confronting a ‘coming anarchy’ of unknown dimensions. Hence, a new strategy of containment is needed. There is no longer one exclusive actor to be contained. A strategy for military containment of China similar to that used against the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s, will likely provoke all kinds of crises and even conflict, which such a strategy intends to avoid. Therefore, a different concept of containment is needed, one that is not perceived as a threat by China. The second difference is that current developments in the strategic environment display fundamentally conflicting tendencies. A strategy designed to counter only one of these conflicting tendencies may be problematic with respect to the others. Therefore, there is a need to strike a balance between competing possibilities. The third difference is that the traditional containment was perceived mainly as military deterrence of the Soviet Union. The new containment must combine traditional, military containment on one side and a range of opportunities for cooperation on the other. That is necessary with respect not only to China, but even to political Islam, in order to reduce the appeal of militant Islamic movements to millions of Muslim youths. In response to this unbounded-ness on war and violence, a conception for their containment is needed to provide a sustained and continual limitation through the ‘fencing in and encircling of the same forces’. The guiding perspective is that of a peaceful, or rather a pacified, global society. This perspective cannot be equated with â€Å"peace† since in order to reach this goal, non-peaceful, violent and even military means must in some cases be employed. Clausewitz’s Concept of Politics The defeat of Napoleon was the turning point of Clausewitz’s theory, where he faced the problem of dealing with strategies of limited war within the same conceptual framework as those leading to total defeat of the enemy. He realized that there are very different and even contrasting kinds of war and strategy. The conflicting tendencies in war, especially between ‘limited’ and ‘unlimited’ war compelled Clausewitz to conclude that the unifying general principle was politics. However, which kind of politics could serve to contain war and violence in the twenty-first century? Clausewitz’s notions of limited warfare have their foundations in the last parts of book VIII. They find some reflection in book I, chapter 2: ‘Be that as it may, we must always consider that with the conclusion of peace the purpose of the war has been achieved’; and further on: ‘Since war is not an act of senseless passion but is controlled by its political object, the value of this object must determine the sacrifices to be made for it in magnitude and also in duration. ’ In book VIII, he stated: ‘In this way the belligerent is again driven to adopt a middle course. He would act on the principle of using no greater force, and setting himself no greater military aim, than would be sufficient for the achievement of his political purpose. To turn this principle into practice, he must renounce the need for absolute success in each given case. ‘ It is a natural step to evolve from his strategy of limited warfare to one of the limitations of war and violence as the overarching purpose of political action in the twenty-first century. This perspective is still based on Clausewitz’s statement that war is a continuation of politics by other means, while trying to actualize his concept of politics. Clausewitz describes war on the one hand as a continuation of politics, but on the other side as waged with other than political means. This implicit tension is the basis of the explicit contrast between the first and the third tendencies of Clausewitz’s trinity. Furthermore, one could argue that globalization and the ubiquity of information technologies have created a worldwide political space from which no one can escape, however much his actions might be derived, in their immediate motivation, from private interests or from the cultural practices of ethnic or tribal communities. Hence, the role of politics is intensified and reaction time within all three tendencies of Clausewitz’s trinity is reduced. Containing War and Violence in World Society The concept of containment is associated with the insight that we cannot expect in the foreseeable future to see fully non-violent societies or a non-violent world society. In addition, the aspiration to a world without conflicts as such fails to recognize that in the course of history conflicts and conflict solutions have frequently been necessary for human development. The main task confronting politics and social forces in the twenty-first century is the radical limitation, even diminishing of violence and war, so that non-violent structures can be sustained and the mechanisms of the ‘world of societies’ can come to fruition. The overall political perspective on which the concept of the containing of war and violence in world society rests therefore consists of the following elements, the ‘pentagon of containing war and violence’: 1) The ability to deter and discourage any opponent from fighting a large-scale war and to conduct precise military action as a last resort; (2) The possibility of using military force in order to limit and contain particularly excessive, large-scale violence which has the potential to destroy societies; (3) The willingness to counter phenomena which help to cause violence, such as poverty and oppression, especially in the economic sphere, and also the recognition of a pluralism of cultures and styles of life in world society; 4) The motivation to develop a culture of civil conflict management (concepts which can be summed up in the ‘civilizational hexagon’, global governance, and democratic peace), based on the observation that the reduction of our action to military means has proved counterproductive and in the end will exceed our military capabilities; and (5) Restricting the possession and proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, their delivery systems, as well as of small arms, because the proliferation of both is inherently destructive to social order. Antulio Echevarria writes that ‘the U. S. National Strategy for Combating Terrorism also includes an essential, but rather ambitious goal of diminishing the conditions that terrorists typically exploit, such as poverty, social and political disenfranchisement, and long-standing political, religious, and ethnic grievances; reducing these conditions requires, among other things, fostering political, social, and economic development, good governance, the rule of law, and consistent participation in the â€Å"war of ideas† Further important tasks include preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and of small arms. Normative criteria are required for the containment of war and violence in world society. Such criteria combine political–moral considerations with aspects relevant to every state’s interest in self-preservation. It requires political actors to recognize the advantages of self-limitation as part of their own enlightened self-interest. In anthropological terms, we can see the roots of the political in the openness and indeterminacy of the human power to act. In historical terms, we can follow Aristotle in seeing these roots in the way we are forced to limit ourselves once we become aware of the contingency of human actions. It follows from this that one of the decisive questions for future development is that of the possible self-interest of the United States, or regional powers, making conflict subject to legal norms, in civil conflict management, and binding military power into alliance systems. President Obama’s ‘Pivot to Asia’ necessitated the development of a military strategy for the potential, if highly improbable, conflict with China. Seeking a decisive victory or traditional military containment are not viable strategies in current and projected realities, as they probably only serve to escalate the situation. Also, the United States must select ways that minimize the probability of escalation to nuclear conflict simply because it does not understand China’s nuclear release process and there is no winner in a major nuclear exchange. The logic leads to the concept of Offshore Control. Operationally, it uses currently available means and restricted ways to deny China the use of the sea in a strategy of economic strangulation to exhaust China to the point it seeks war termination. Penetration into China is forbidden to reduce the possibility of escalation and to make war termination easier. Offshore Control seeks to allow the Chinese Communist Part to end the conflict in the same way China ended its conflicts with India, the UN (in Korea), the Soviet Union and the Vietnamese. It allows China to declare it â€Å"taught the enemy a lesson† and thus end the conflict. The progressive limitation of war and violence indefinitely can be an end to itself in the realization of a basically peaceful global policy. The enduring and progressive containment of war and violence is therefore necessary for self-preservation of states, even their survival, and for the civility of individual societies and world society. Conclusion Clausewitz, in his note of 1827, recognized the need to rework the whole of On War according to his new insight, the distinction between limited war and war whose aim is to overthrow the enemy and render him powerless. However, he was not always clear in his thoughts especially in his early writings and even up to 1827. For example, there is a lack of clarity on the discourse at the beginning of book I, chapter 1, of the three interactions that push war to the extreme, despite the fact that these sections were presumably written after the note of 1827. It can be said that for the purpose of analyzing and studying warfare, both the early and later Clausewitz is of great importance and value. However, for political and military action of our time, perhaps only the later Clausewitz needs serve as an important basis. As Clausewitz himself emphasized at the end of his discussion of the trinity, ‘at any rate, the preliminary concept of war casts a first ray of light on the basic structure of theory, and enables us to make an initial differentiation and identification of its major components. Thinking about contemporary and future warfare with, and sometimes beyond, Clausewitz can still be the best way to begin. Bibliography 1. Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Clausewitz and a New Containment. In S. Hew, ; H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 283-307). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. 2. Andreas, H. -R. , ; Antulio , E. (2007, December 27). Clausewitz in the Twenty First-Century: Primacy of Policy and a N ew Containment. From World Security Network: http://www. worldsecuritynetwork. com/showArticle3. cfm? article_id=14985 3. Antulio, E. (1995-1996, Winter). War, Politics and the RMA: The Legacy of Clausewitz. Joint Force Quarterly, pp. 76-80. 4. Antulio, E. I. (2003). Globalization and the Clausewitzian Nature of War. The European Legacy, 8/3, pp. 317-32. 5. Clausewitz, C. v. (1976). On War. In H. Michael, P. Peter, H. Michael, ; P. Peter (Eds. ). New Jersey: Princeton. 6. Durieux, B. (2009). Clausewitz and the Two Temptations of Modern Strategic Thinking. In S. Hew, ; H. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 251- 265). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. 7. Hammes, T. (2012, Spring). Offshore Control: A Proposed Strategy. Infinity Journal, 2(2), pp. 0-14. 8. Hew, S. , ; Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Introduction. In S. Hew, ; H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 1-13). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. 9. Antulio, E. (2009). Clausewitz and the Nature of the War on Terror. In S. Hew, ; H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 196-218). New York: Oxford Un iversity Press Inc. 10. Ken, B. , ; R. , T. (1999). Strategic Cultures in the Asia-Pacific Region. London. 11. Metz, S. (1994). Clausewitz Homepage. From A Wake for Clausewitz: Toward a Philosophy of 21st-Century Warfare: http://www. lausewitz. com/readings/Metz. htm 12. Sumida, J. (2009). On Defence as the Stronger Form of War. In S. Hew, ; H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 164-181). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Durieux, B. (2009). Clausewitz and the Two Temptations of Modern Strategic Thinking. In S. Hew, H. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 251- 265). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 2 ]. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, trans. and ed. Michael Howard and Peter Parat (Princeton, NJ, 1976), II, 2, p. 141. 3 ]. Ibid. II, 2, p. 141. [ 4 ]. Ibid. II, 2, p. 142. [ 5 ]. Ken, B. , R. , T. (1999). Strategic Cultures in the Asia-Pacific Region. London. [ 6 ]. Durieux, B. (2009). Clausewitz and the Two Temptations of Modern Strategic Thinking. In S. Hew, H. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 251- 265). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 7 ]. The same principles and strategies that were the decisive foundation of Napoleon’s initial successes at Jena and Auerstedt proved inadequate in the special situation of the Russian campaign and eventually contributed to his final defeat at Waterloo. 8 ]. Clausewitz or Sun Tzu – Paradigms of warfare for the 21st century written by: Andreas Herberg-Rothe, 13-Dec-06. WorldSecurityNetwork. com – WorldSecurityNetwork. com. http://www. worldsecuritynetwork. com/printArticle3. cfm? article_id=13757 [ 9 ]. On War, I, 1,  §28, P. 89. [ 10 ]. Hew, S. , Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Introduction. In S. Hew, H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 1-13). New York : Oxford University Press Inc. [ 11 ]. Vom Kriege, ed. Werner Hahlweg (19th edn, Bonn, 1980), 1, 1,  §28, pp. 212-213. 12 ]. On War, VIII, 6B, p. 610. [ 13 ]. Ibid. p. 605. The phrase ‘with the addition of other means’ is deliberately used by Howard and Paret as they wanted to make it clear that war in itself does not suspend political intercourse or change it into something entirely different. Essentially, the intercourse continues, irrespective of the means it employs. The main lines along which military events progress, and to which they are restricted, are political lines that continues throughout war into the subsequent peace. It could not be otherwise. Political relations between peoples and between their governments do not stop when diplomatic notes are no longer exchanged. [ 14 ]. The German word Politik covers both policy and politics. Clausewitz did mean different things at different points. Sometimes the context suggests that he has foreign policy in mind, at others he highlights the social upheaval of the French Revolution and its consequence for warfare. [ 15 ]. Antulio Echevarria, ‘War, Politics and the RMA: The Legacy of Clausewitz’, Joint Force Quarterly, 10 (winter 1995-6), 76-80. [ 16 ]. On War, VIII, 3B, p. 589 [ 17 ]. Ibid. p. 586. 18 ]. Hew, S. , Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Primacy of Policy and Trinity in Clausewitz’s Thought. In S. Hew, H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 74-90). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. No modern translator is prepared to render wunderliche in the military context as â€Å"wonderful† or â€Å"wonderous†. Howard and Paret in 1976 used ‘remarkable’, which was a throwaway word of no particular significance. This was changed to ‘paradoxical’ in the 1984 edition, but this word seems to have no relationship to wunderliche and carries inappropriately negative connotations. 19 ]. On War, I, 1,  §28. [ 20 ]. Ibid. Clausewitz’s description of the trinity followed after the metaphor of war as a chameleon. [ 21 ]. Ibid. [ 22 ]. George Kennan formulated his original vision of containment more than sixty years ago. Although altered in its application by various administrations in the United States, it has in practice been incorporated within the concept and politics of common security, which in turn has itself been the essential complement to purely military containment. [ 23 ]. In comparison to the Cold War. [ 24 ]. Between globalization on the one hand, and local struggles for identity and regional advantages and interests on the other; between high-tech wars and combat with ‘knives and machetes’ or attacks by suicide bombers between symmetrical and asymmetrical warfare; between wars over the ‘world order’, with the re-politicization and re-ideologization, between imperial-hegemonic dominance of the only superpower and the formation of new regional power centers; between international organized crime and the institutionalization of regional and global communities; and between increasing violations of international law and human rights on one side and their expansion on the other. [ 25 ]. Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Clausewitz and a New Containment. In S. Hew, H. -R. Andreas (Eds. , Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 283-307). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 26 ]. Clausewitz discussed unlimited and limited war in terms that supported his conception of the defense as the stronger form of war. The central issue in both cases of war was the will of the combatants. Unlimited war occurred when the attacker was determined to destroy the political independence of the defender through battle if necessary, and the defender no less determined to preserve its political independence. Equivalence in the strength of will did not, however, mean the outcome would be determined by the balance of military forces and the fortunes of war. Even catastrophic military defeat at the hands of a militarily superior attacker, Clausewitz believed, would not produce a decision if the defender had the will to preserve what remained of his regular military forces by retreat even to the point of abandonment of all national territory, and to resort to armed popular support against the invader in spite of its potential to promote anarchy. Limited war meant a situation in which the attacker’s objectives did not involve the destruction of the political independence of the defender, and the defender’s stake in the outcome was thus not one of survival. (Sumida, 2009) [ 27 ]. Andreas Herberg-Rothe had elaborated this interpretation in Andreas Herberg-Rothe, Das Ratsel Clausewitz. Politische Theorie des Krieges im WIderstreit (Munich, 2001), 79-145, and in the English edition of the same book, Clausewitz’s Puzzle (Oxford, 2007). We can find this conclusion in the trinity; within the note of 1827, in which Clausewitz mentioned both aspects as guiding principles for reworking the whole text; in book I, chapter 2; and in most parts of book VIII of On War, [ 28 ]. On War, I, 2, pp. 91-2. [ 29 ]. Ibid. VIII, 3B, p. 585. [ 30 ]. It can be demonstrated that, due to systematic reasons but also with the respect to historical experience, trying to suspend this tension for the sake of the primacy of one of the two sides always leads to a primacy of the military means, of warfare and violence; see Beatrice Heuser, Reading Clausewitz (London, 2002). [ 31 ]. Antulio, E. I. (2003). Globalization and the Clausewitzian Nature of War. The European Legacy, 8/3, pp. 317-32. [ 32 ]. Ernst Otto Czempiel, Weltpolitik im Umbruch. Die Pax Americana, der Terrorisinus und die Zukunft der interuationalen Bezh. ‘hungen (Munchen, 2002). [ 33 ]. Andreas, H. -R. (2009). Clausewitz and a New Containment. In S. Hew, H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 283-307). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 34 ]. Antulio, E. (2009). Clausewitz and the Nature of the War on Terror. In S. Hew, H. -R. Andreas (Eds. ), Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 196-218). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. [ 35 ]. Hammes, T. (2012, Spring). Offshore Control: A Proposed Strategy. Infinity Journal, 2(2), pp. 10-14. [ 36 ]. Ibid. I, 1,  §28, p. 89. How to cite Clausewitz in the 21st Century, Papers

The Fall of The Roman Empire

Question: Describe about the fall of the Roman Empire? Answer: The ancient Roman Empire had large territories in and around the Mediterranean sea. The territory was in Europe, Asia and Africa. It was among the largest empire in the world history. The decline or fall of the Roman Empire is an event that marks the ending of the classical antiquity. The event also marked the starting of the Middle Ages in Europe. Ancient Rome had territories extending from Western Europe to north western Africa and included Italy (1737-1794, G. 2013). In the 5th century this entire territory was invaded several times by various tribes. The Roman Empire suffered great crisis in the third century. The period saw the Roman Empire collapsing due to the pressure of civil war, economic depression, plague and invasion. This crisis started after the emperor Alexander Severus was assassinated by his own troops. The fall of the ancient Roman Empire started around 190 AD when the empire was under the attack of the Vandals and the Goths. Some historians believe that the ancient Roman Empire did not actually fall in and around 476 AD (Frassetto, 2013). It was because the eastern part of the kingdom still continued to for many years as the Byzantine Empire. Rise of Christianity It is said that the rise of Christianity a new religion, was one of the many reasons of the decline of the Roman Empire. The traditional Roman religion was based on polytheism that is they worshipped many gods; while the new religion Christianity was monotheistic (Ushistory.org, 2015). Constantine, the first Christian Roman emperor in the year 313 C.E., declared the religion to be tolerated in the empire. Later he declared that the religion to be official religion. Thus there arose confliction between the Romans and the Christians. The new capital of Constantinople Constantine also made another change which also led to the fall of the Roman Empire. In 330 C.E., he decided to split the vast empire into two regions. He was of the opinion that Rome was too far from the important areas in the empire (Gibbon, 2001). Thus he moved this capital to a new place called Constantinople which he had named after him in the east Byzantine Empire. The Roman Empire was thus divided into two parts. The western part was based in Rome and the eastern part was in Constantinople. The new city was had an advantageous situation since it on a peninsular region. Due to its geographic advantages the city was well fortified. Also it easily could defend itself from external threats and attacks. With the passage of time the eastern part thrived while the western part gradually declined. The eastern part continued as the Byzantine Empire for about hundreds of years. Invasion by the Barbarian tribes Rome was attacked several times by various barbaric tribes. By 300 C.E, the Goths had entered the Roman Empire and attacked the city. Again by the 410 C.E., King Alaric of the Visigoth plundered Rome which was the second attack. The Visigoths first attacked in between 376 to 382 C.E. The empire was raided again in 455 C.E. by the Vandals. The Vandals again destroyed the Roman fleet by launching a surprise attack in 461 C.E (History.com, 2015). Finally the Germanic leader Odoacer in 476 C.E. revolted against the emperor Romulus Augustus. Romulus was deposed and Odoacer became the first barbarian ruler of Rome. From then onwards the western empire began to disintegrate. Other reasons Apart from the warfare there were certain other reasons which led to the decline of the Roman Empire. For twenty years the epidemics like measles and smallpox continued to sweep through the empire. The diseases almost destroyed the western part of the Roman Empire. Moreover the lead poisoning also led to death of many people in the empire (Ushistory.org, 2015). Since the people used lead utensils and containers which contained toxic elements created problem such as lower birth rates, erratic behavior, anemia and even led to death The Roman Empire which was one of the powers of economic, political, cultural and military forces the world had in that time. The vast nature of the empire was the cause of the downfall of the Roman Empire. The rulers were unable to control the vast empire. The lack of strong decision by the emperor Constantine led to several conflictions among the people of Rome. Moreover the increased Germanic tribe in the Roman population led to political chaos in the empire (Frassetto, 2013). The eastern empire evolved into the Byzantine state after the death of Theodosius. The eastern empire also started to continue its own path. Thus all these reason led to the fall of the ancient Roman Empire. References 1737-1794, G. (2013).History of the decline and fall of the roman empire. [S.l.]: Hardpress Ltd. Frassetto, M. (2013).The early medieval world. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. Gibbon, E. (2001).The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. London: Electric Book Co. History.com,. (2015).8 Reasons Why Rome Fell HISTORY Lists. Retrieved 11 February 2015, from https://www.history.com/news/history-lists/8-reasons-why-rome-fell Ushistory.org,. (2015).The Fall of the Roman Empire [ushistory.org]. Retrieved 11 February 2015, from https://www.ushistory.org/civ/6f.asp

Celebrity Advertising free essay sample

Sometimes probably yes. But there are also models used to determine the appropriate celebrity for the job, and that is what my paper is going to be researching. One of the most important variables that seems to influence how persuasive a celebrity will be in any advertising is the appropriateness of the celebrity for endorsing a particular brand and product. This appropriateness may be defined as the natural linkage between personality and product category, regardless of how the celebrity is actually used in the ad (Jones). There are many different models used to determine which celebrity is the best fit for an advertising campaign, such as the source attractiveness model, the source credibility model, the product match hypothesis, the co-activation theory, the cognitive source model (elaboration likelihood model), and the cultural meaning transfer. The next sections of my paper will be discussing these models in greater detail. First of the models want to discuss are some that have been around for quite some time and were the bases of all of the models to follow. This model, the source model, is where marketers will rate celebrities on many different attributes when trying to place them into a commercial and early attempts at understanding the influence of any source in the persuasive context suggested that an attractive, trustworthy, like able, or credible source facilitates the message-learning and acceptance process (Jones). It was believed that you needed to determine in what context you want your advertisement to show and pick a celebrity that would align with this image. .. . Here factors contribute to the effectiveness of message. These are familiarity of an endorser, similarity of an endorser and liking of an endorser. Similarity can be defined as the extent to which the receiver (customer) finds semblance between itself and the source (endorser). Familiarity refers to that how much knowledge the receiver (customer) posses about the source (endorser) And likeability is the affection the receiver (customer) develops towards source (endorser) because of the physical attractiveness of the endorsed (Aimed).That said, it seems as though likeability relies a great deal on how attractive the celebrity is; I would say that familiarity related to trustworthiness, in that when you know someone well or have knowledge about them, then you are more likely to trust that said person. Going beyond just physical appearance for how you perceive someone, you also may view someone as credible. This person does not necessarily need to be a celebrity, but maybe someone who is well known for this certain area of expertise, or perhaps as long as the advertisement states the persons credentials, you are more apt to believing what the person is selling to you.Being credible holds that the effectiveness of a message is based on the perceived level of expertise and trustworthiness the customers have in an endorser Expertise can be defined as the extent to which the endorser communicator) is perceived to be knowledgeable, skillful and experienced (Aimed). I believe that attractiveness identifies more with peripheral cues, while credibility aligns more with central processing cues.When someone is viewed as attractive, you may be more interested in the advertisement just due to your sense of sight and emotional cues, whereas when someone is credible, you are more cognitive in your analyzing and begin to think about the products attributes the communicator is telling you more so than just wanting to purchase the product because of the looks of that person. These re brought up again later when talking about the cognitive response model. The next model is the Product Match-Up Hypothesis [which] states that there should be perfect match between the celebrity personality characteristics and brand attributes (Aimed).This model seems to be the most widely used of all of the models, as I found the most information and articles about it. This theory was born out of the observation that using an attractive model is not universally effective for all products. They tend to work better for products that are beauty related (Nag). The article goes on to tell s that this theory is used for other things besides beauty products as well, but many of the characteristics result the attractiveness-rating of a celebrity matched with a product that is either thought to be an attractive or unattractive product. The product celebrity match-up doesnt solely rely on just ordinary congruency but on the physical attractiveness of the celebrity as well. Attractive celebrities are more persuasive specially when endorsing the products that enhance the prettiness (Aimed). One article tell us that this hypothesis is related to the balance theory in that, when the celebrity image r attributes do not coincide with the known attributes of the brand, product, or service, incongruence results. This incongruence produces tension and generates forces in the reader or viewer to restore balance (Jones).You need to find the correct celebrity to be able to create an attitude using the celebrity in the consumer that is consistent with their perceived attitude about the brand. Namely, the message conveyed by the image of the celebrity and the message about the product ought to converge in effective ads [it] is important because it allows for meaningful processing and makes it more Seibel for the brand name to be effectively linked and associated with the celebrity/ (Jones). There have been some critiques to this model, however, brought up by Lawrence Nag.First of all, some celebrities fit in some categories, but do worse on others (I. E. Trustworthiness or likeability) and there are many celebrities to choose from, so it is hard to pinpoint the exact right one for the ad at hand. Second, if you are trying to reposition a brand, you would not be able to use this theory because a certain level of incongruity is necessary in order to change the perception (Nag). Along with that, the theory must also explain the phenomenon of reverse transfer. This means that the endorsed product can also influence the perception of the celebrity.A celebrity can lose his cache very quickly if he/she were to endorse a negative product (Nag). It is also shown that this hypothesis does not explain what exactly fir means; it is more of a generic term according to this hypothesis, where as other theories go into detail as what fit actually means to them. Finally, this model does not explain any asymmetric effects. For instance, if an attractive celebrity (e. G. Tom Sellers) is juxtaposed with an attractive product (e. G. , luxury car), an image enhancement is seen for this attractive product more so than for an unattractive product (e. . , typewriter). However, for an unattractive celebrity (e. G. , Tell Cassavas) he/she does not in any way influence the unattractive product (e. G. , typewriter) even though he/she matches this product better (Nag). In other words, attractive celebrities work well with attractive products, but it is harder to find a match for an unattractive product as attractive celebrities are not a match for these products, and unattractive liberties still have no positive effect on these sorts of products.From these inconsistencies, other theories are found as to why this hypothesis still works and is still widely used. First is the social adaptation theory. This theory states that a person will continue to process an ad until no new information is added; therefore it is the acquisition of new information that helps us adapt to our environment. Thus, an attractive celebrity is more effective for endorsing a beauty-related product because an attractive celebrity can add more information about the product than an interactive celebrity (Nag).

English Essay Sample - Feminism

English Essay Sample - FeminismIf you are serious about getting an English essay sample, it is important to know the difference between feminist theory and feminism. These two terms are often used interchangeably, but they are not the same thing.In order to understand feminism, one must first understand feminist theory. First, feminism seeks to eliminate gender roles. It is a movement that promotes equality for women. The second element of feminism is that women are treated as an inferior species in the society.This means that the feminist theory of feminism will effect the essay sample in more than one way. Not only do you have to include feminism on your essay, but you also have to learn how to be a feminist in order to successfully convince a college or university that you are worthy of an essay sample.However, as you read the feminist theory section of the English essay sample, you must make sure that you carefully write out the sentence that you are going to use as an example. T he sentence you use should be in the opinion section of the essay.Word usage should be careful. You cannot use an old word like 'like' if it is a new word. Instead, use 'instead,' 'alternately,' or 'in place of.'To ensure that you get all the words that you need, you will have to write out all the words you do not use. Of course, you will use quotes and quotations. It is important to get your reader involved in this part of the essay. You will also want to keep the flow of the writing.Writing an English essay sample that does not include feminist theory can be difficult. However, with the help of this sample, you will be able to write an essay with some writing skills. Remember, it is important to look into the feminist theory section and check if there are any questions that you have, and then answer them as best you can.

Hypoxia and Aviation

Introduction The paper presents a review, analysis and a study on hypoxia faced by pilots at higher altitudes. The problems faced by pilots of commercial flights and the ways and means of dealing with them with the use of technology used in military planes will be the point of discussion and focus.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Hypoxia and Aviation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The usage of technology that minimize the conditions of hypoxia at higher altitudes and reduction of its negative effects on pilots who deal with the decision-making process while flying will be analyzed, and recommendations will be given. Literature Review Hypoxia and Flying One of the foremost things of the primary requirements of humans is air. The lack of air, most specifically oxygen leads to hypoxia. Initially, hypoxia has been reported at high altitudes on mountains by mountaineers and after the invention of aero planes, t he pilots and flight attendants are experiencing the effects of hypoxia and are feeling stressed. This can be termed as ‘decompression sickness’ (Aronson K.S; 1991, 26) and has been first recognized or occurred in 1841. According to Aronson K.S (1991, 26) French mining engineer M. Triger ‘noticed symptoms experienced by miners after working in deep mine shafts’ (Aronson K.S; 1991, 26). Number of workers had been prone to joint pains and became vulnerable to paralysis. However, the same sickness can be felt in a reverse manner, which can be known as hypoxia, when pilots fly in the air in a plane. While they fly in the air, they experience decompressed air and don’t have enough oxygen in the air, they breathe that is required for normal metabolic activities of the body. Though the effects of hypoxia are not the same in different pilots, but it cannot be ignored as the effects are noticeable. In this regard, Aronson K.S (1991, 26-27) mentions about Paul Bert who is famous with the name ‘father of altitude physiology’. As per the information provided about Paul Bert’s observations, though the commercial flights flying at a height of around 20,000 feet, with the pressurized atmosphere, still there is a lack of pressure of oxygen as the pressurization is only enough if the aircraft flies at 8,000 feet. That means the commercial aircrafts are flying at a height of around 20,000 feet with the pressurized atmosphere that suits the altitude of 8,000 feet, which results in hypoxia in pilots and flight attendants.Advertising Looking for assessment on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Aronson K.S (1991, 28) explains that when one goes to 18,000 feet above the sea level, the atmospheric pressure will be reduced to half of the standard pressure of one atmosphere. That means the oxygen availability also decreases by half of the amount that is available at the normal atmospheric pressure at sea level. Consequently, the pilots and flight attendants who face this situation almost daily suffer from hypoxia (Aronson K.S: 1991, 25-28).1 Thus, pilots and flight attendants are mostly associated with hypoxia. Though the commercial air craft cabins do have enough induced pressure for the safety and health of passengers and crew, the hypoxia depends on altitude. According to Sharma L (2007), at an altitude of 8,000 feet, people in flight may experience mild hypoxia (Sharma L; 2007), even in the presence of the pressurized atmosphere. That means the pressurized atmosphere is lacking oxygen, and it is necessary to pressurize the flight interiors with oxygen. Exposure to hypoxia can be considered into two categories. Simply being exposed to hypoxia and working in the atmosphere of hypoxia. Pilots and flight attendants do work in the hypoxia atmosphere, and it may result in headache and loss of memory, which may affect future working status of pilots. The hypoxia may lead to stress, headache, backache, disturbed sleep, hearing problems and so on. Hence, ‘the nature and extent of physical/physiological problems and discomforts experienced by pilots’ (Sharma L; 2007) need to be examined, and a study is necessary to decide on the cause for the problems and difference from the normal state they are facing while in and after the flying hours. It is necessary to know about the variation of effects of hypoxia if any on the persons depending on their age and sex. As the effects of hypoxia may or may not present for a long-time, it is necessary to conduct tests on the pilots regarding hypoxia for each flight or in some airlines, they test pilots for the effects of hypoxia before each flight (Sharma L: 2007)2 so that necessary medication could be given.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Hypoxia and Aviation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Howev er, according to Good W.A (1991, 104) the performance of the pilots might be degraded with ‘both prescribed and over the counter medications as well as by the medical conditions for which they are taken’ (Good W.A; 1991, 104). Normally, the medicines of hypoxia are sedative, tranquilizer or antihistamine. These medicines make a pilot ‘much more susceptible to hypoxia’ (Good W.A; 1991, 104) and hence it is necessary for the pilots to minimize the use of over the counter medicines. In addition to the above precautions alcohol can impair the pilot even many hours after its consumption and digestion due to hangover. The impairment of pilot may cause flight accidents and some of the major accidents give ground to the argument that hypoxia may be the reason for the inability that caused the accident. For example, two accidents at Dallas and Fort Worth involving Delta Airlines alongside the accident in Denver by the flight of continental airlines proved that the p ilots are the cause for the fatal happening, and hypoxia may be the reason for it. Another accident in Washington DC due to Air Florida flight, alongside the crash of North West flight in Detroit could be some more examples, where pilots are blamed for the happenings, and hypoxia may be a cause for it. Hence, one cannot rule out the role of hypoxia in flight crashes as it impairs the pilots’ ability to deal with the situation (Good W.A: 1991, 104-105).3 Pressurized Atmosphere and Hypoxia As hypoxia affects the ability of the pilot to deal with the adverse situations, modern aircraft are capable of operating at very high altitudes. The capability is due to the attempt to prevent hypoxia with the pressurized atmosphere. However, due to any unforeseen circumstances as if ‘sudden loss of cockpit pressure presents a life threatening hypoxia situation, requires an immediate response’ (Lindeis A.E, Fraser W.D Fowler B; 1997). To deal with the above-mentioned situations of rapid decompression situations that lead to hypoxia, the modern military aircrafts are having a system that gets the plane down to deal with the decompression and can be provided for commercial aircrafts also in the future.Advertising Looking for assessment on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The rapid get down of the plan in the condition of decompression is to minimize the effect of or slow down the onset of hypoxia by descending to a safe altitude, where the decompression at higher altitude could be controlled. To do this with commercial aircrafts also, a series of experiments had been done to reduce the impairment of pilot performance due to rapid de-compression. However, there exists severe hurdle to these experiments as to measure the performance of a pilot in these circumstances is very difficult as it depends on physiological state of the pilot. To minimize the physiological problems of pilots, the system has two features. One is related to breathing and another to put enough pressure on the body. The breathing system is known as positive-pressure breathing (PPB) through a mask. The second feature that consists of a jerkin with inflatable bladders puts pressure on limbs, chest, lungs and abdomen thus minimizing the effect of decompression or hypoxia. The PPB is t o delay the collapse of blood circulation system and hypoxia as well. The main hurdle to extend the usage of this system to commercial flights also is because it is necessary to provide these suits and masks to all the passengers, which is commercially not viable. However, the present review is regarding the effect of hypoxia on pilots, its consequences and ways and means of minimizing or avoiding it, the ‘first aim of the experiments was to determine the degree of performance impairment under rapid decompression and the extent the PPB can help in reducing it. The hypoxia may result in affecting the ‘visual serial choice reaction time (SCRT) task of the pilots, which may prove fatal and thus immediate reduction of hypoxia is necessary to avoid accidents in commercial planes. In addition to that Lindeis A.E, Fraser W.D Fowler B (1997) explains that the possible causes of performance deficit indicate hypoxia as it decreases the arterial blood oxygen saturation. This decre ase in saturation may result in slowing of reaction time for pilots and may result in accidents. Hence, hypoxia and its effects are to be studied to provide more comfortable and safety measures for pilots to reduce the contexts of performance deficits while flying (Lindeis A.E, Fraser W.D Fowler B: 1997).4 Conclusion: The literature review concludes that the hypoxia results in impairment of the pilot and may affect his/her decision making capability. Hence, it is necessary to contemplate about the safety measures that avoid the effects of hypoxia on pilots and minimize the negative effects on decision making capability. Methodology The methodology involved in this paper is a qualitative analysis of the topic with the help of available literature. The analysis has been supported by literature review, which provided enough background for the aspects that should be considered during analysis. The review starts from finding of effects of hypoxia to the effects of it on pilots and fligh t attendants and the measures that need to be taken to minimize or reduce it. The technology that helps in minimizing the effect of hypoxia and the possibility of usage of it has been reviewed, and the analysis will take place according to the aspects and conclusion of the review and as per the necessities of pilots, which help in reducing flight mishaps and improve air safety. Analysis/Discussion As far as the effects of hypoxia are considered, the ‘provision of the pilot against high sustained accelerations, against hypoxia’ (AEAT; 1993, 2) needs to be considered. The decompression effects at high altitude could be minimized by the technology that provides breathing gas. The breathing air can be provided from ‘engine bleed air’. To do this, ‘molecular sieve oxygen generator, which works on pressure breathing on exposure to acceleration( (AEAT; 1993, 2) is necessary as it provides not only oxygen necessary to breathe comfortably but also the minimum pressure necessary for the body to be normal at high altitudes, which result in decompression. That means to avoid the state of decompression and lung collapse; there should be a system in the cabin that provides pressure and oxygen respectively. To do so, protective garments are necessary as the mask provides oxygen for lungs and garment exerts enough pressure on the body in a decompressed atmosphere. In addition to that it is necessary to provide inward relief to the pilots as they experience suffocation due to lack of supply of oxygen. The cabin and other places in an aircraft need to have systems to replenish the back-up oxygen in case of decompression emergencies as the pilots may not take the right decision while they suffocate. The commercial plane makers can take a cue from the systems in war planes that provide ‘higher degree of protection and mobility’ (AEAT; 1993, 3) for the pilots. In this regard AEAT (1993, 3) explains about liquid conditioning to full cove rage anti g trousers, necessary for the pilots to face decompressed and hypoxia situations. However, the system and the garments provided to the pilots should be selected and made after taking into consideration functional characteristics. They are ‘operational life support, operational escape and survival, and personal’ (AEAT; 1993, 3). The operational life support should enable the pilot to take decisions regarding flight safety, which means the safety of passengers alongside self. The operational escape survival should consider the aspects that help the flight crew and passengers to escape in case of emergency. However, in commercial flights, operational life support is necessary as it is difficult to train the passengers regarding escape and survival attempts. However, operational life support equipment could be provided so that it could help the passengers also in the case of emergency. However, as the paper is about hypoxia and its effects on pilots and their deci sion making, the operational life support for the pilots is of utmost importance. The oxygen masks and pressure breathing garments can provide with the necessary operational life support necessary in the case of decompression and hypoxia faced by the pilots (AEAT: 1993, 1-3).5 This is due to the fact that at high altitudes, ‘the human body experiences hypoxia when it tries to adapt to lower atmospheric pressure and reduced oxygen level as well’ (Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E; 2004, 272). This results in increased heart rate, cardiac output and respiration rate as it is necessary to ensure sufficient supply of oxygen to the body parts. To ensure that supply the above-mentioned activities will increase, and they return to the normal when the atmospheric pressure returns to normal. The changes in respiration, heart output and blood circulation result in change in the mood and it affects the physical and mental performance of the pilots. Hence, the safety measures and systems tha t are to be included in the flights should work in a manner to normalize the above mentioned increased activities. The increased heart output and blood pressure also results in a decrease of endurance of the body, and the consequence is the need of exercise performance. The decrease of endurance decreases the situation that allows to work and yet times may demand the days and weeks of exposure to enough oxygen. Hence, after every flight, it is necessary to examine the pilots for the status of endurance, physical fitness and mental stability as well. If this can be seen as an exaggerated response, they should be checked for the above features once in a stipulated period of time. This is because, Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E (2005, 273) explains that psychomotor performance would be degraded with the ascent of altitudes above 4,300 meters, and the accuracy of the decision-making process would be impaired. Penetar D.M et al (2005) further continues that there would be a delay in reaction an d significant impairment of cognitive performance, which is necessary for the pilots while taking decisions during flight. One measure that can be taken to reduce hypoxia though not up to the desired extent is not to ascend rapidly to altitudes above 1,800 meters (6000 feet) as that may put the individuals at risk and if the pilots are put at risk whole flight will be at risk. Hence, the intensity of effect of hypoxia depends on rapidness in the initial ascent, and if it could be reduced the intensity of the effect of hypoxia also could be reduced. As a result, alongside the systems that deal with decompression and lack of oxygen, the rules and regulations should stipulate the slow ascent to delay and minimize the effects of decompression and hypoxia. Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E (2005, 274) further explains that aviation equipment needs to be designed to provide enough haemoglobin saturation to pilots. This could be helpful in hypoxic environment and these systems are widely used only i n military planes, but not in commercial flights. Hence, these systems need to be modified according to the usage of commercial flights and offered to the pilots so that they could deal with hypoxic conditions successfully and this also helps them to remain fit even after continuous and frequent exposure to hypoxic conditions. The systems that deal with decompression sickness also should be considered as ‘Air Force over the past 20 years, with thousands of simulated altitude exposures revealed a 41 percent incidence of decompression symptoms’ (Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E: 2005, 272-275).6 Conclusion The hypoxia is the worst situation that any pilot can face while flying and can be considered as a major concern in aviation industry. As the safety of the passengers depends on the decision making capability and physiological condition of the pilot and flight attendants, it is necessary to have systems that deal with hypoxia and decompressed atmosphere. The systems should provi de operational life support to enable the pilot to perform the duties in conditions of decompression and hypoxia. The review and analysis concluded on the facts of development of systems that provide oxygen and pressure as well in the high altitudes for pilots. Recommendations It is necessary to provide oxygen and pressure in the cabin of the pilots to increase their decreased endurance due to decompression and hypoxia. To deal with hypoxia, the systems should provide oxygen for breathing. To deal with the decompressed atmosphere, the systems should provide pressure in the cabin so that the pilots can work in normal atmospheric pressure conditions. It is necessary to examine the pilots for their physiological conditions once in a stipulated period to find the negative effects of hypoxia on them if any. There should be institutional arrangements in aviation industry to deal with the decreased physical endurance of pilots. Reference List AEAT. (1993). SAFE Europe Symposium 1993. Air craft Engineering and Aerospace Technology. 66 (1). Pp.2-4. Aronson K.S. (1991). Flight: The Physiological Stresses. In Sheila R. Deitz and William E. Thoms, eds., Pilots, Personality, and Performance: Human Behavior and Stress in the Skies. New York: Quorum Books. Pp. 25-28. Good W.A. (1991). The Post-Deregulation Pilot Job Market: Pilot Error or Personnel Economics?. In Sheila R. Deitz and William E. Thoms, eds., Pilots, Personality, and Performance: Human Behaviour and Stress in the Skies. New York: Quorum Books. Pp.104-105. Lindeis A.E, Fraser W.D Fowler B. (1997). Performance during Positive Pressure Breathing after rapid decompression up to 72000 feet. Human Factors. 39(1). Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E. (2004). The Physiology of Performance, Stress and Readiness, in James W. Ness, Victoria Tepe, and Darren R. Ritzer (ed.) The Science and Simulation of Human Performance: Advances in Human Performance and Cognitive Engineering Research. Volume 5. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. pp .267-305 Sharma L. (2007). Lifestyles, Flying and Associated Health Problems in Flight Attendants. Perspectives in Public Health. 127(6). Footnotes 1 Aronson K.S. (1991). Flight: The Physiological Stresses. In Sheila R. Deitz and William E. Thoms, eds., Pilots, Personality, and Performance: Human Behavior and Stress in the Skies. New York: Quorum Books. P. 25-28. 2 Sharma L. (2007). Lifestyles, Flying and Associated Health Problems in Flight Attendants. Perspectives in Public Health. 127(6). 3 Good W.A. (1991). The Post-Deregulation Pilot Job Market: Pilot Error or Personnel Economics?. In Sheila R. Deitz and William E. Thoms, eds., Pilots, Personality, and Performance: Human Behaviour and Stress in the Skies. New York: Quorum Books. P.104-105. 4 Lindeis A.E, Fraser W.D Fowler B. (1997). Performance during Positive Pressure Breathing after rapid decompression up to 72000 feet. Human Factors. 39(1). 5 AEAT. (1993). SAFE Europe Symposium 1993. Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Techn ology. 66(1). Pp.2-4. 6 Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E. (2004). The Physiology of Performance, Stress and Readiness, in James W. Ness, Victoria Tepe, and Darren R. Ritzer (ed.) The Science and Simulation of Human Performance (Advances in Human Performance and Cognitive Engineering Research, Volume 5). Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp.267-305 This assessment on Hypoxia and Aviation was written and submitted by user Davian Reed to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.